Características auxológicas en pacientes pediátricos con déficit aislado permanente o transitorio de hormona del crecimiento. Respuesta al tratamiento y talla final / Auxological characteristics of pediatric patients with permanent or transient isolated growth hormone deficiency. Response to treatment and final height

Introducción: El tratamiento con hormona de crecimiento recombinante (rhGH) ha demostrado mejorar la talla adulta de los pacientes pediátricos con déficit de GH (DGH). Sin embargo, cuando los pacientes son reevaluados al llegar a la talla final, se evidencia que existen pacientes en los que el déficit de GH es permanente (DPGH) y otros en los que el déficit ha sido transitorio (DTGH). El objetivo es evaluar, en una cohorte de pacientes pediátricos con DGH, si existen diferencias en la respuesta al tratamiento con GH en función de que dicho déficit sea permanente o transitorio. Materiales y métodos: Estudio retrospectivo de 89 pacientes con DGH, que fueron seguidos desde el diagnóstico y durante todo el seguimiento hasta la talla adulta. Se obtuvieron parámetros clínicos, auxológicos, radiológicos y analíticos al diagnóstico, así como tras el primer año de tratamiento y en la revisión de la talla final. Resultados: El 28% de los pacientes presentaron un DPGH. Talla inicial de −2,46 ± 0,86 DE en el DPGH y −2,24 ± 0,68 DE en el DTGH. El valor pico de GH al diagnóstico fue de 4,26 ± 2,78 y 6,20 ± 2,01 ng/mL, respectivamente (p < 0,01). Tras el primer año de tratamiento el incremento de la velocidad de crecimiento fue mayor en el grupo de DPGH: 4,33 ± 3,53 DE vs. 2,95 ± 2,54 DE (p = 0,043). Talla final de −0,81 ± 0,87 DE los DPGH y de −0,95 ± 0,83 DE los DTGH (p = 0,47). Conclusiones: Los pacientes con DPGH obtienen un mayor beneficio del tratamiento con rhGH tanto a corto como a largo plazo. Además, muestran niveles más bajos de GH en las pruebas de estímulo al diagnóstico, como ha sido descrito previamente

Introduction: Treatment with recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) has been shown to improve adult height in pediatric patients with GH deficiency (GHD). However, reassessment of patients after they reach their final height shows some of them have permanent GH deficiency (PGHD), while others had a transient deficiency (TGHD). The study objective was to assess, in a cohort of pediatric patients with GHD, potential differences in response to treatment with rhGH depending on whether deficiency is permanent or transient. Materials and methods: A retrospective study of 89 patients with GHD, who were monitored from diagnosis to adult height. Clinical, auxological, radiographic and laboratory variables were collected at diagnosis, after the first year of treatment, and when they had reached their adult height. Results: PGHD was found in 28% of patients. Initial height was −2.46 ± 0.86 SD and −2.24 ± 0.68 SD in subjects with PGHD and TGHD respectively. Peak GH level at diagnosis was 4.26 ± 2.78 and 6.20 ± 2.01 ng/mL (p < 0.01) in the PGHD and TGHD groups respectively. After the first year of treatment, increase in growth velocity was greater in the PGHD group: 4.33 ± 3.53 SD vs. 2.95 ± 2.54 SD in the PGHD group (p = 0.043). Final height was −0.81 ± 0.87 SD in the PGHD and −0.95 ± 0.83 SD in the TGHD group (p = 0.47). Conclusions: Patients with PGHD had a better short- and long-term response to rhGH. They also showed lower GH levels in stimulation tests at diagnosis, as previously reported

Auxological characteristics of pediatric patients with permanent or transient isolated growth hormone deficiency. Response to treatment and final height. / Características auxológicas en pacientes pediátricos con déficit aislado permanente o transitorio de hormona del crecimiento. Respuesta al tratamiento y talla final.

INTRODUCTION: Treatment with recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) has been shown to improve adult height in pediatric patients with GH deficiency (GHD). However, reassessment of patients after they reach their final height shows some of them have permanent GH deficiency (PGHD), while others had a transient deficiency (TGHD). The study objective was to assess, in a cohort of pediatric patients with GHD, potential differences in response to treatment with rhGH depending on whether deficiency is permanent or transient. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective study of 89 patients with GHD, who were monitored from diagnosis to adult height. Clinical, auxological, radiographic and laboratory variables were collected at diagnosis, after the first year of treatment, and when they had reached their adult height. RESULTS: PGHD was found in 28% of patients. Initial height was -2.46 ± 0.86 SD and -2.24 ± 0.68 SD in subjects with PGHD and TGHD respectively. Peak GH level at diagnosis was 4.26 ± 2.78 and 6.20 ± 2.01 ng/mL (p < 0.01) in the PGHD and TGHD groups respectively. After the first year of treatment, increase in growth velocity was greater in the PGHD group: 4.33 ± 3.53 SD vs. 2.95 ± 2.54 SD in the PGHD group (p = 0.043). Final height was -0.81 ± 0.87 SD in the PGHD and -0.95 ± 0.83 SD in the TGHD group (p = 0.47). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with PGHD had a better short- and long-term response to rhGH. They also showed lower GH levels in stimulation tests at diagnosis, as previously reported.

Infusión subcutánea continua de insulina en menores de 6 años: evolución a largo plazo / Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion in children less than 6 years-old: long-term progress

Objetivos: Valorar la eficacia y la seguridad del tratamiento con infusión subcutánea continua de insulina (ISCI) en niños menores de 6 años durante periodos prolongados de tiempo y evaluar si alcanzan criterios de adecuado control glucémico. Métodos: Estudio retrospectivo de 27 niños que iniciaron tratamiento con ISCI entre 2003-2014. Edad de inicio de ISCI: 4 años (2,9-4,7); 56% varones. Se recogen: edad de inicio de diabetes, tiempo de evolución de diabetes, HbA1c (HPLC Menarini, valor normal 5,1±0,31%), dosis insulina (u/kg/día), número de controles de glucosa capilar/día, número de tramos basales/día, porcentaje de insulina basal, ratios insulina/ración hidratos carbono (I/HC), episodios de hipoglucemia grave y de CAD (episodios/100 pacientes-año), porcentajes de normoglucemia (70-180mg/dl), hiperglucemia (> 180mg/dl) e hipoglucemia (<70mg/dl), glucemia media, desviación estándar y coeficiente variación ([desviación estándar/glucemia media]×100). Análisis estadístico por SPSS. Resultados: La HbA1c disminuye de 6,9%(6,7-7,5) a 6,8%(6,4-7,1) el primer año, posteriormente se mantiene <6,8% durante el periodo de seguimiento (mediana 5 años [3-6]). Antes de ISCI el 74% tenían HbA1c <7,5% y al año el 96%. Media de controles de glucosa capilar/día de 10(9-11). No se observaron cambios significativos en la dosis de insulina. Hubo un episodio de CAD y un episodio de hipoglucemia grave durante el seguimiento. La ratio I/HC al desayuno fue superior a la de otras ingestas (0,92u/r vs. 0,55, 0,6 y 0,5 en comida, merienda y cena). Conclusiones: El tratamiento con ISCI es eficaz y seguro en menores de 6 años durante periodos prolongados de tiempo. Permite alcanzar los objetivos de buen control metabólico recomendados por la Asociación Americana de Diabetes y la Sociedad Internacional de Diabetes Pediátrica y del Adolescente, sin incremento de efectos adversos (AU)

Objective: The aims of the study are to evaluate the efficacy and safety of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) treatment in pre-school children with type I diabetes, and to assess whether the criteria of good metabolic control are achieved. Method: A review was performed on the medical charts of patient's < 6 years of age who started CSII treatment between 2003 and 2014. The cohort consisted of 27 patients (mean age 4 (2.9-4.7) years, 56% males). An analysis was made including the age at onset, type I diabetes duration, HbA1c (HPLC, Menarini, normal value 5.1 ± 0.31%), insulin dose (u/kg/day), number of capillary blood glucose measurements, number of baseline processes per day, % baseline/total insulin (B/TI), insulin ratios (I/HC) at different meals, severe hypoglycaemia (HS episodes/100 patients years), DKA events, percentages of normal blood glucose (70-180mg/dl), hyperglycaemia (>180mg/dl), and hypoglycaemia (<70 mg/dl), mean blood glucose, standard deviation and coefficient of variation (SD/mean glucose ×100). Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS. Results: HbA1c decreased from 6.9% (6.7-7.5) to 6.8% (6.4-7.1) after one year of CSII. Afterwards, it remained under 6.8% during the follow-up (median 5 years [3-6]). Prior to CSII, 74% of children had HbA1c levels < 7.5%. It increased to 96% after one year of CSII. Median blood glucose measurements /day was 10 (9-11). Total insulin dose did not change significantly. During the follow-up, there was one episode of DKA and one episode of HS. I/HC at breakfast were higher than at other meals (0.92 vs. 0.55, 0.6 and 0.5, respectively). Conclusions: CSII is effective and safe in pre-school children. It allows good metabolic control (based on Society for Paediatric and Adolescent Diabetes / American Diabetes Association criteria) to be achieved and maintained for long periods of time without an increase in adverse events (AU)

La respuesta monofásica a la sobrecarga oral de glucosa como factor predictivo del riesgo de diabetes tipo 2 en pacientes pediátricos con obesidad / The monophasic pattern in oral glucose tolerance test as a predictive risk factor of type 2 diabetes in obese paediatric patients

Introducción: El aumento en la prevalencia de obesidad en la edad pediátrica se asocia a mayor incidencia de diabetes mellitus tipo2 (DM2). El tipo de respuesta de la glucemia y de la insulina a la sobrecarga oral de glucosa (SOG) podría predecir el riesgo de DM2 en pacientes con obesidad. Objetivo: Valorar la respuesta a la SOG y relacionar con factores de riesgo de DM2 en niños y adolescentes obesos. Métodos: Estudio observacional retrospectivo sobre 588 pacientes (309 varones, 279 mujeres); 90,3% caucásicos; edad media 11,1 ± 2,8 años. Según el tipo de respuesta en la SOG se establecieron dos grupos: monofásico y bifásico. Se analizaron parámetros antropométricos, bioquímicos e índices relacionados con sensibilidad a la insulina y la función de la célula Beta. Resultados: El 50,2% de los pacientes tuvieron un patrón de glucosa monofásico (50,8% varones), el 48,5% bifásico (47,6% varones) y el 1,3% indeterminado. La respuesta monofásica mostró menor sensibilidad a la insulina y peor función de la célula Beta; los pacientes con patrón bifásico presentaron mayor índice de masa corporal, perímetro de cintura y presión arterial, sin ser estos resultados estadísticamente significativos. Los pacientes latinos tuvieron glucemias significativamente menores en la SOG a expensas de una mayor insulinemia. Conclusiones: El patrón de respuesta de la SOG refleja fenotipos metabólicos diferentes. Los pacientes pediátricos con un patrón bifásico tienen un perfil con menor riesgo de desarrollar DM2. Una SOG en niños y adolescentes obesos podría ser útil para implementar estrategias de intervención precoz y prevenir la aparición de prediabetes o DM2 en esta población (AU)

Introduction: The onset of obesity at young ages is strongly associated with the early development of type 2 diabetes (T2D). The shape of the curves of glucose and insulin curves during an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) could predict the risk of developing T2D. Objective: To analyse the morphology of the OGTT and determine T2D risk factors in a mainly Caucasian population of children and adolescents. Methods: Observational retrospective study including 588 patients (309 males, 279 females) with a mean age of 11.1 ± 2years, and of whom 90.3% were Caucasian. Risk factors for T2D were compared in patients with a monophasic or biphasic pattern during the performance of an OGTT, as well as anthropometric and biochemical variables, insulin resistance, and beta-cell function. Results: The shape of the glucose curve was monophasic in 50.2% of patients (50.8% male), biphasic in 48.5% (47.6% males), and indeterminate in 1.3%. The monophasic pattern showed lower insulin-sensitivity and worse beta-cell function. Patients with a biphasic pattern had a higher BMI, waist circumference, and blood pressure, although the results were not significant. Latin-American patients had significantly lower serum glucose levels with higher insulin levels during the OGTT. Conclusions: The pattern of response to an OGTT reflects different metabolic phenotypes. Paediatric patients with a biphasic pattern have lower risk-profiling for T2D. The performing of an OGTT could be useful to implement early intervention strategies in children and adolescents with obesity, in order to prevent the development of pre-diabetes or T2D (AU)

[The monophasic pattern in oral glucose tolerance test as a predictive risk factor of type 2 diabetes in obese paediatric patients]. / La respuesta monofásica a la sobrecarga oral de glucosa como factor predictivo del riesgo de diabetes tipo 2 en pacientes pediátricos con obesidad.

INTRODUCTION: The onset of obesity at young ages is strongly associated with the early development of type 2diabetes (T2D). The shape of the curves of glucose and insulin curves during an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) could predict the risk of developing T2D. OBJECTIVE: To analyse the morphology of the OGTT and determine T2D risk factors in a mainly Caucasian population of children and adolescents. METHODS: Observational retrospective study including 588 patients (309 males, 279 females) with a mean age of 11.1±2years, and of whom 90.3% were Caucasian. Risk factors for T2D were compared in patients with a monophasic or biphasic pattern during the performance of an OGTT, as well as anthropometric and biochemical variables, insulin resistance, and beta-cell function. RESULTS: The shape of the glucose curve was monophasic in 50.2% of patients (50.8% male), biphasic in 48.5% (47.6% males), and indeterminate in 1.3%. The monophasic pattern showed lower insulin-sensitivity and worse beta-cell function. Patients with a biphasic pattern had a higher BMI, waist circumference, and blood pressure, although the results were not significant. Latin-American patients had significantly lower serum glucose levels with higher insulin levels during the OGTT. CONCLUSIONS: The pattern of response to an OGTT reflects different metabolic phenotypes. Paediatric patients with a biphasic pattern have lower risk-profiling for T2D. The performing of an OGTT could be useful to implement early intervention strategies in children and adolescents with obesity, in order to prevent the development of pre-diabetes or T2D.

Dysmorphic Features, Frontal Cerebral Cavernoma, and Hyperglycemia in a Girl with a De Novo Deletion of 7.23 Mb in Region 7p13-p12.1.

We describe the case of a 7-year-old girl referred to our diabetes unit for hyperglycemia associated with facial dysmorphic features, intellectual disability, and cerebral cavernomas. Based on presence of anti islet antigen-2 (IA2) antibodies and a human leukocyte antigen of DR3/DR4/DQ2, the patient was initially diagnosed to be a case of type 1 diabetes mellitus. At follow-up, the very good metabolic control on a low insulin dose and negative IA2 antibodies led to a suspicion of glucokinase (GCK)-related maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY 2). This suspicion was substantiated in multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) which showed a heterozygous GCK deletion (exons 1 to 12). However, the patient's parents did not have such a deletion and were clinically euglycemic. Given the clinical picture and the MLPA findings, array based comparative genomic hybridization was performed showing a monoallelic deletion of 7.23 Mb in the short arm of chromosome 7 (7p13-p12.1). The deleted intervals contain 39 genes listed in the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man list, including GCK associated with MODY 2, CCM2 associated with type 2 cerebral cavernous malformations, IGFBP-3 associated with decrease in postnatal growth, and OGD associated with alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase deficiency, with cognitive impairment and movement abnormalities. This previously unreported deletion was considered to explain the clinical picture of the patient. Also, the findings suggest that 7p13-p12.1 contains genes involved in intellectual disability and craniofacial development.

Achievement of metabolic control among children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes in Spain.

AIMS: To assess metabolic control in a paediatric T1D population in Spain and analyse the rate of severe acute decompensations and chronic complications. METHODS: Data from patients treated at eight paediatric diabetes units with experienced diabetes teams between June and December 2014 were analysed in an observational prospective study. Variables included: age, sex, diabetes duration, number of follow-up visits/year, anthropometrical data, insulin treatment modalities, mean annual HbA1c and the prevalence of acute and chronic complications. SPSS statistics 21.0 was used. RESULTS: A total of 853 patients (49.7% female) with a mean age of 12.1 ± 3.7 years were included. Anthropometric data were normal. Mean diabetes duration was 8 ± 3.4 years. Mean outpatient follow-up was 4.7 ± 0.04 visits/year. Twenty-five per cent were on continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII). Mean HbA1c was 7.3 ± 1% (56 ± 8 mmol/mol) and 66.6% had HbA1c < 7.5% (58 mmol/mol). HbA1c value correlated negatively with age at onset and positively with years of diabetes, number of visits/year and current age (F = 7.06; p = 0.01). Patients on CSII (n = 213) were younger, attended the outpatient clinic more frequently, were diagnosed earlier, had better metabolic control and had presented more severe hypoglycaemic episodes the previous year. The rate of severe decompensation (episodes/100 patients/year) was ketoacidosis 1.5 and severe hypoglycaemia 4.5. The prevalence of chronic complications was very low. CONCLUSIONS: Our data describe the good compliance of paediatric T1D patients treated at eight paediatric units in Spain following international standards of metabolic control.

The syndrome of central hypothyroidism and macroorchidism: IGSF1 controls TRHR and FSHB expression by differential modulation of pituitary TGFß and Activin pathways.

IGSF1 (Immunoglobulin Superfamily 1) gene defects cause central hypothyroidism and macroorchidism. However, the pathogenic mechanisms of the disease remain unclear. Based on a patient with a full deletion of IGSF1 clinically followed from neonate to adulthood, we investigated a common pituitary origin for hypothyroidism and macroorchidism, and the role of IGSF1 as regulator of pituitary hormone secretion. The patient showed congenital central hypothyroidism with reduced TSH biopotency, over-secretion of FSH at neonatal minipuberty and macroorchidism from 3 years of age. His markedly elevated inhibin B was unable to inhibit FSH secretion, indicating a status of pituitary inhibin B resistance. We show here that IGSF1 is expressed both in thyrotropes and gonadotropes of the pituitary and in Leydig and germ cells in the testes, but at very low levels in Sertoli cells. Furthermore, IGSF1 stimulates transcription of the thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor (TRHR) by negative modulation of the TGFß1-Smad signaling pathway, and enhances the synthesis and biopotency of TSH, the hormone secreted by thyrotropes. By contrast, IGSF1 strongly down-regulates the activin-Smad pathway, leading to reduced expression of FSHB, the hormone secreted by gonadotropes. In conclusion, two relevant molecular mechanisms linked to central hypothyroidism and macroorchidism in IGSF1 deficiency are identified, revealing IGSF1 as an important regulator of TGFß/Activin pathways in the pituitary.

[Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion in children less than 6 years-old: long-term progress]. / Infusión subcutánea continua de insulina en menores de 6 años: evolución a largo plazo.

OBJECTIVE: The aims of the study are to evaluate the efficacy and safety of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) treatment in pre-school children with type I diabetes, and to assess whether the criteria of good metabolic control are achieved. METHOD: A review was performed on the medical charts of patient's<6 years of age who started CSII treatment between 2003 and 2014. The cohort consisted of 27 patients (mean age 4 (2.9-4.7) years, 56% males). An analysis was made including the age at onset, type I diabetes duration, HbA1c (HPLC, Menarini, normal value 5.1±0.31%), insulin dose (u/kg/day), number of capillary blood glucose measurements, number of baseline processes per day, % baseline/total insulin (B/TI), insulin ratios (I/HC) at different meals, severe hypoglycaemia (HS episodes/100 patients years), DKA events, percentages of normal blood glucose (70-180mg/dl), hyperglycaemia (>180mg/dl), and hypoglycaemia (<70mg/dl), mean blood glucose, standard deviation and coefficient of variation (SD/mean glucose ×100). Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS. RESULTS: HbA1c decreased from 6.9% (6.7-7.5) to 6.8% (6.4-7.1) after one year of CSII. Afterwards, it remained under 6.8% during the follow-up (median 5 years [3-6]). Prior to CSII, 74% of children had HbA1c levels < 7.5%. It increased to 96% after one year of CSII. Median blood glucose measurements /day was 10 (9-11). Total insulin dose did not change significantly. During the follow-up, there was one episode of DKA and one episode of HS. I/HC at breakfast were higher than at other meals (0.92 vs. 0.55, 0.6 and 0.5, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: CSII is effective and safe in pre-school children. It allows good metabolic control (based on Society for Paediatric and Adolescent Diabetes / American Diabetes Association criteria) to be achieved and maintained for long periods of time without an increase in adverse events.

An Activating Mutation in STAT3 Results in Neonatal Diabetes Through Reduced Insulin Synthesis.

Neonatal diabetes mellitus (NDM) is a rare form of diabetes diagnosed within the first 6 months of life. Genetic studies have allowed the identification of several genes linked to the development of NDM; however, genetic causes for ∼20% of the cases remain to be clarified. Most cases of NDM involve isolated diabetes, but sometimes NDM appears in association with other pathological conditions, including autoimmune diseases. Recent reports have linked activating mutations in STAT3 with early-onset autoimmune disorders that include diabetes of autoimmune origin, but the functional impact of STAT3-activating mutations have not been characterized at the pancreatic ß-cell level. By using whole-exome sequencing, we identified a novel missense mutation in the binding domain of the STAT3 protein in a patient with NDM. The functional analyses showed that the mutation results in an aberrant activation of STAT3, leading to deleterious downstream effects in pancreatic ß-cells. The identified mutation leads to hyperinhibition of the transcription factor Isl-1 and, consequently, to a decrease in insulin expression. These findings represent the first functional indication of a direct link between an NDM-linked activating mutation in STAT3 and pancreatic ß-cell dysfunction.

Impact of insulin pump therapy on long-term glycemic control in a pediatric Spanish cohort.

AIMS: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of Continuous Subcutaneous Insulin Infusion (CSII) in a pediatric cohort and to determine if the ISPAD/IDF/ADA criteria for good metabolic control are achieved during long periods of time. METHODS: Retrospective longitudinal study including ninety patients [10.5 (6.5-13.9) years of age, 58% males]. Age at debut, type 1 diabetes mellitus duration, pubertal stage, HbA1c, insulin dose, mean number of glycemic controls, number of basal rates, % basal/total insulin, severe hypoglycemia and diabetic ketoacidosis events were analyzed. Subgroup analysis based on age and pubertal stage was performed. RESULTS: HbA1c decreased from 6.9% [52 mmol/mol] to 6.7% [50 mmol/mol] after one year of CSII. Afterwards, it remained less than 7% during the follow-up period (median 3.5 ± 1.8 years (range 1-8). Prior to CSII, 76% of the subjects met ISPAD/ADA criteria. One year after initiating CSII, 96% of children had HbA1c<7.5%. Improvement in glycohemoglobin levels was most prominent in those patients with the highest HbA1c initial levels. Total insulin dose decreased from 0.89 to 0.73 UI/kg/day (p<0.001). Proportion of basal/total insulin changed significantly (47 to 42% (p<0.05)). Number of fractions of the basal rate increased from 5.6 ± 1.8 at one year of CSII to 6.7 ± 2.1 five years later. Incidence of severe hypoglycemic events decreased from 19 to 6.9 episodes/100 patient-year. Only 2 episodes of diabetic ketoacidosis occurred. CONCLUSIONS: CSII allows reaching ISPAD/IDF/ADA goals safely during an extended follow-up period in a diabetic pediatric cohort.

Síndrome de Donohue. Resistencia extrema a la insulina en el periodo neonatal / Donohue syndrome. Extreme insulin resistance in the neonatal period

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Documento de consenso sobre el tratamiento con infusión subcutánea continua de insulina en el medio hospitalario / Position statement on continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion in the hospital setting

En España hay un número creciente de personas con diabetes tipo 1 tratadas con la terapia de infusión subcutánea continua de insulina (ISCI), pero no hay directrices nacionales sobre cómo manejar la terapia con bomba de insulina en el ámbito hospitalario. El Grupo de Nuevas Tecnologías de la Sociedad Española de Diabetes ha revisado la literatura y varias directrices internacionales y propone un documento de consenso sobre el manejo de la terapia con bomba de insulina para los pacientes hospitalizados. El documento contiene recomendaciones sobre las indicaciones, las contraindicaciones y los requisitos necesarios para el mantenimiento de la terapia con ISCI en el hospital. Esta revisión proporciona una guía para el manejo de pacientes ISCI en entornos especiales, tales como la sala de urgencias, cirugía, parto y para pacientes pediátricos. Por último, el grupo propone un conjunto de documentos necesarios para establecer una política ISCI en el hospital. En conclusión, la terapia con ISCI se puede utilizar con seguridad en el hospital en pacientes seleccionados después de haberse implementado un protocolo estandarizado

There is an increasing number of people with type 1 diabetes treated with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion therapy (CSII) in Spain, but there are no national guidelines on how to manage insulin pump therapy in the hospital setting. The Group on New Technologies in Diabetes of the Spanish Diabetes Society has reviewed the literature and several international guidelines, and proposes a consensus document on the management of insulin pump therapy for inpatients. The document contains recommendations on indications, contraindications and the requirements needed to maintaining CSII therapy. This review provides a guide for the management of CSII patients in special settings such as the emergency room, surgery, delivery, and for pediatric patients. Finally, the group proposes a set of documents needed to establish a CSII policy in the hospital. In conclusion, CSII therapy can safely be used in the hospital in selected patients after the implementation of a standardized protocol

Achievement of metabolic control goals set by the American Diabetes Association and the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes in pediatric patients with type 1 diabetes from Spain.

AIM: The "T1D Exchange Clinic Registry" of 13.316 pediatric patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) in U.S. recently revealed that most children have HbA1c values above target levels established by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD). The aim of this study is to assess the proportion of youngsters with T1D who meet the internationally accepted targets for good metabolic control of diabetes at a single, referral Pediatric Diabetes Center in Spain. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Cross-sectional study of 236 children and adolescents with T1D controlled at our Pediatric Diabetes Unit. We analyzed the compliance to metabolic goals set by ADA and ISPAD and the differences between patients treated with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion and multiple daily injections. STATISTICS: SPSS™ version 21.0. RESULTS: Mean age: 12.6 ± 4.6 years old, mean age at diagnosis: 6.1 ± 4.3 years old and mean diabetes duration: 6.4 ± 4.3 years; 47% female. HbA1c average: 6.7 ± 0.7% (49.7 ± 7.6 mmol/mol). The age-specific ADA and ISPAD HbA1c targets were achieved by 93% and 91% of patients, respectively. Among pump users, 97%/97% met ADA/ISPAD HbA1c targets compared to 87%/88% of MDI users (p = 0.04/p = 0.03), without significant differences in the analysis by groups of age. Among participants, 95%, 62%, 95%, 98% and 89% met HDLc, LDLc, triglycerides, BP and BMI targets. CONCLUSIONS: Most patients in our children and adolescent cohort of T1D patients correctly achieve metabolic goals established by ADA and ISPAD with low incidence of hypoglycemia.

Pulmonary function in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus.

AIM: To assess lung function in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). PATIENTS AND METHODS: We conducted a case-control study of 100 patients with T1DM [median age 13 (10.6-14.7), 44% men, 23% prepubertal, and all nonsmokers] and 77 controls. None had evidence of lung disease or any other comorbidity. We performed pulmonary function tests, including spirometry [forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1), and FEV1/FVC ratio], plethysmography [total lung capacity (TLC), residual volume (RV), RV/TLC ratio, and airway resistance (Raw)], and diffusing capacity of carbon monoxide in the lung (TLCO), alveolar volume (AV), and TLCO/AV ratio. The duration of diabetes, degree of metabolic control, insulin dose, and presence of diabetic complications were registered. The χ²-test and analysis of variance were used to compare categorical and quantitative variables, respectively. RESULTS: The duration of diabetes was 6.2±3.8 years with a median HbA1c of 7.08±0.4%. FEV1/FVC ratio was found to be significantly higher in patients with TIDM than in controls. Patients with diabetes also had a nonsignificant trend towards lower FVC, FEV1, Raw, and TLCO, and higher RV, TLC, and RV/TLC than controls. There were no differences in pulmonary function based on duration of disease or metabolic control. We found differences in pulmonary evaluation when pubertal stage was analyzed. CONCLUSIONS: The lung is functionally involved in children with T1DM. Pubertal development stage influences the evaluation of lung function.

Management of endocrine disease: Cystic fibrosis-related diabetes: novel pathogenic insights opening new therapeutic avenues.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a recessive genetic disease caused by mutations in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). CFTR is primarily present in epithelial cells of the airways, intestine and in cells with exocrine and endocrine functions. Mutations in the gene encoding the channel protein complex (CFTR) cause alterations in the ionic composition of secretions from the lung, gastrointestinal tract, liver, and also the pancreas. CF-related diabetes (CFRD), the most common complication of CF, has a major detrimental impact on pulmonary function, nutrition and survival. Glucose derangements in CF seem to start from early infancy and, even when the pathophysiology is multifactorial, insulin insufficiency is clearly a major component. Consistently, recent evidence has confirmed that CFTR is an important regulator of insulin secretion by islet ß-cells. In addition, several other mechanisms were also recognized from cellular and animals models also contributing to either ß-cell mass reduction or ß-cell malfunction. Understanding such mechanisms is crucial for the development of the so-called 'transformational' therapies in CF, including the preservation of insulin secretion. Innovative therapeutic approaches aim to modify specific CFTR mutant proteins or positively modulate their function. CFTR modulators have recently shown in vitro capacity to enhance insulin secretion and thereby potential clinical utility in CFDR, including synergistic effects between corrector and potentiator drugs. The introduction of incretins and the optimization of exocrine pancreatic replacement complete the number of therapeutic options of CFRD besides early diagnosis and implementation of insulin therapy. This review focuses on the recently identified pathogenic mechanisms leading to CFRD relevant for the development of novel pharmacological avenues in CFRD therapy.

Transición del paciente con diabetes tipo 1 desde la Unidad de Diabetes pediátrica a la Unidad de Diabetes de adultos / Transition of adolescents with type 1 diabetes from paediatric to adult Health Care

La transición de los pacientes pediátricos con diabetes tipo 1 (DM1) a Unidades de adultos puede conllevar efectos adversos para la salud de los pacientes si no se hace de forma adecuada. El paso tiene lugar durante la adolescencia, periodo especialmente crítico de la vida caracterizado por cambios específicos tanto psicológicos como fisiológicos, durante el que se incrementa el riesgo de aparición y progresión de las complicaciones crónicas así como de los ingresos relacionados con la DM1. Coincidiendo con el cambio de equipo médico se han objetivado pérdidas en el seguimiento de los pacientes y un empeoramiento en su grado de control metabólico que debemos intentar evitar. Se precisan programas planificados, progresivos y estructurados que incluyan la participación del individuo, de la familia y del servicio de salud para que la transición sea lo más favorable posible. El momento óptimo para hacer el cambio de equipo sanitario es cuando el paciente tenga madurez suficiente para ser casi autónomo en el tratamiento de la DM1, situación que en la mayoría de las personas no se alcanza antes de los 16-18 años. La coordinación entre los profesionales de pediatría y de adultos, la educación grupal, el uso de tecnologías y el abordaje psicosocial favorecen la adherencia y el seguimiento en esta fase de transición. Tras la valoración de las recomendaciones de las Sociedades Científicas Internacionales se propone un modelo de transición consensuado entre las Sociedad Española de Diabetes y la Sociedad Española de Endocrinología Pediátrica

The transition of adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) from paediatric health care to adult health care has been recognized as an important and difficult process, with a high risk of interruption of care and associated with poor glycaemic control. Transition to adult units takes place during adolescence in an especially critical period of life with changes, both in psychological and physiological aspects that increase the risk of onset and progression of chronic complications related to T1DM.Adverse outcomes that may affect the health of these patients can appear if transition is not done properly. Previous studies have shown that planned and structured transition programs are required, including the participation of the individual, the family, and the health service. The best time to make the transition is when they are mature enough to be almost capable of managing their T1DM. The majority of patients do not reach this stage before the age of 16-18 years. There should be coordination between professionals of paediatric and adult health care in the planning of this transition. Group education programs, the use of new technologies, and the approach to psychosocial aspects are suggested in order to improve adherence and followup during this period. After assessing the recommendations of some International Scientific Societies, the Spanish Society of Diabetes and the Spanish Society for Pediatric Endocrinology propose following a planned transition model

Diabetes tipo 2 en población pediátrica española: cifras, pronóstico y posibilidades terapéuticas / Type 2 diabetes in a Spanish pediatric population: numbers, prognosis and therapeutic options

La diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DM2) en la edad pediátrica se define por la triada: obesidad, resistencia y déficit insulínico y ausencia de autoinmunidad pancreática. Factores de riesgo son la etnicidad, la historia familiar, la obesidad, el sedentarismo, el alto o bajo peso al nacer y la diabetes gestacional. El llamativo incremento de su incidencia en las últimas décadas en algunos países coincide con el incremento de la obesidad. En España sigue siendo muy infrecuente. La morbimortalidad está relacionada con el desarrollo de complicaciones agudas y crónicas (más frecuentes y precoces) y comorbilidades -hipertensión, hipercolesterolemia- con serias implicaciones para la salud pública. El tratamiento incluye la intervención en el estilo de vida (nutrición y ejercicio) y la terapia farmacológica; solo la metformina y la insulina han sido aprobadas para su utilización en la edad pediátrica. Hay que identificar a los niños y adolescentes con alto riesgo de DM2 mediante la determinación de la glucemia en ayunas o, mejor, con la sobrecarga oral de glucosa

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in the pediatric age is defined as the impaired balance between insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion, obesity and the absence of pancreatic antibodies. The worldwide epidemic of childhood obesity has been accompanied by an increase of T2DM, but not in Spain. Significant risk factors for T2DM include ethnicity, family history, obesity, low (or high) birth weight and gestational DM. Its outcome includes the early development of acute and chronic diabetic complications and secondary comorbidities as hypertension and hyperlipidaemia. Treatment goals include lifestyle changes (nutrition and exercise) to achieve glycemic control. Metformin and insulin are the only agents approved for pediatric T2DM. Children at substantial risk for T2DM should be considered for screening by fasting plasma glucose or oral glucose tolerance test

Efecto beneficioso y prolongado del buen control metabólico de la diabetes relacionada con fibrosis quística sobre la función pulmonar y el estado nutricional / Long-term benefits in lung function and nutritional status of strict metabolic control of cystic fibrosis-related diabetes

La diabetes relacionada con la fibrosis quística (DRFQ) es un factor determinante del empeoramiento de la función pulmonar y del incremento de mortalidad. El tratamiento con insulina mejora esta situación. Se presenta el caso de un paciente diagnosticado de fibrosis quística (FQ) a los 16 años. Al cabo de dos años presentó un deterioro rápido de la función pulmonar, cumpliendo meses después criterios de trasplante pulmonar; concomitantemente, fue diagnosticado de DRFQ e inició insulinoterapia. En el seguimiento se evaluaron la función pulmonar por espirometría, el estado nutricional (índice de masa corporal) y el control metabólico (HbA1c) cada 3 meses. Tras iniciar insulinoterapia, obtuvo un buen control metabólico y mejoría progresiva espirométrica y del estado nutricional. A los 4 meses ya no cumplía criterios de trasplante pulmonar, situación que se mantiene a los 8 años. El largo seguimiento documenta un efecto beneficioso rápido y prolongado del buen control metabólico de la DRFQ sobre el deterioro respiratorio en FQ(AU)

Cystic fibrosis related diabetes (CFRD) is a strong determinant for lung function decline and increased mortality. Insulin treatment of CFRD is reportedly beneficial for this situation. We report on the long-term impact of insulin treatment of CFRD on pulmonary function and nutritional status in a CF male patient since diagnosis of diabetes. We report the case of a patient diagnosed with CF at the age of 16. Two years later, he experienced a rapidly evolving decrease in pulmonary function, some months later criteria were met warranting lung transplantation. Concomitantly, he was diagnosed with CFRD and insulin therapy was started. Lung function (spirometry), nutritional status (body mass index) and metabolic control (HbA1c) were determined every 3 months. After the introduction of insulin treatment, pulmonary function and nutritional status progressively improved and good glycemic control was achieved. The significant and sustained improvement in pulmonary function allowed for the patient's withdrawal from the lung transplantation program within 4 months, a situation which has been maintained until now, 8 years later. The long follow-up of our patient documents the rapid and prolonged beneficial effect of proper metabolic control of CFRD on the respiratory deterioration in CF(AU)